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Peer Assistance & Review

                                      

Adult Learning Styles

PAR programs traditionally include opportunities for the professional development of participating teachers. When designing this type of training, it is recommended that differences in adult learning styles be considered. Although there are many common characteristics in how individuals acquire knowledge, there are also some distinct differences. Some individuals learn better by doing, while others would prefer formalized instructional methods (e.g. lectures).

Research has consistently shown that there are considerable differences between adult and child/adolescent learning styles. Additionally, since adults do not learn in the same manner as children, one cannot teach adults using techniques that were originally developed for use with children. Teaching adults requires the utilization of the process model rather than the content model (Cranton, 1989).

The content model, which is usually used with children, relies on one individual (a teacher) who determines what knowledge or skills need to be learned. Conversely, the process model relies on a collaborative environment whereby learners acquire the necessary resources to obtain information and skills that meet their individual needs. Generally, there are some basic contrasts in both assumptions and model design concerning the teaching of children versus adults (Cranton, 1989; Wlodkowski, 1993).

It is important to note that adults themselves vary tremendously in how they acquire knowledge. No one theory on adult learning styles can adequately address the diverse needs, experiences, and cultures that adults bring to the learning environment (Elias and Marriam, 1995). However, an exploration of the different theories on adult learning styles can collectively illuminate an understanding of the diverse nature of adult learning.

The following have been adapted from The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species as outlined by Malcolm Knowles (1984).

Assumptions:	Children:	Adults:
Learner's Concept	Dependent	Independent, self-directed
Learner's Experience	Inconsequential	Rich in resource Learning
Learner's Readiness	Based on physical, mental, social development	Based on need
Relevancy	Later application	Immediate application
Curriculum Environment	Subject-centered, authority-oriented, formal, competitive	Problem-centered, collaborative, informal, respective
Planning	By teacher	Mutual
Determination of Needs	By teacher	Mutual and self-diagnosis
Lesson Design	Sequenced in terms of subject matter, content focused	Sequenced in terms of need, problem focused
Activities	Transmittal of information	Experiential techniques
Evaluation	By teacher	Mutual

Theories of Adult Learning Styles

Learning style has been defined as an individual's characteristic method of responding to and processing learning events as he or she experiences them (Krahe, 1993, p. 17). According to Kolb (1985), individuals develop learning styles that emphasize some learning abilities over others. Additionally, Kolb's experiential learning model assumes that individuals exhibit a preference for certain learning behaviors and these preferences can be grouped into four distinct styles. These four styles include:

Convergers The converger acquires knowledge by thinking/analyzing and then practically applying the new ideas and/or concepts. The ability to practically apply ideas is this learner's greatest strength. Convergers organize information through hypothetical deductive reasoning. The emphasis for convergers is to think rationally and concretely while remaining relatively unemotional.

Divergers The diverger acquires knowledge through intuition. Individuals with this preferred style of learning draw upon their imaginative aptitude and their ability to view complex situations from many perspectives. Divergers also possess the ability to effectively integrate information into meaningful wholes. However, the divergers imaginative ability is his or her greatest strength.

Assimilators The ability to create theoretical models and reason inductively is the assimilator's greatest strength. Assimilators learn by thinking and analyzing and then planning and reflecting. Assimilators do not emphasize practical application, rather they focus on the development of theories, often discarding facts if they do not fit the theory.

Accomodators Unlike the assimilators, accomodaters will discard the theory if the facts do not fit. Accomodators excel in situations where they must apply theories to specific circumstances. Their greatest strength is their ability for getting things done and becoming fully involved in new experiences. Accomodators approach problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error manner and they obtain information from other people rather than through their own analytic abilities.

Kolb's model suggests that learning activities must be developed that would respond to the distinct learning style of learners, as well as encourage the development of a fuller range of learning styles. At minimum, effective learning environments would assist learners in determining their individual learning styles. The Learning Style Inventory developed by Kolb (1985) would be a helpful instrument to utilize.

The learning style model developed by Kolb (1985) primarily concentrates on the cognitive processing of information. Other models of adult learning styles depict learning style as being multidimensional and encompassing a range of variables including many that are non-cognitive in nature. These models include the National Association of Secondary School Principals learning styles model (NASSP)(Keefe and Monk, 1986) and the Dunn and Dunn learning styles model (Dunn, Dunn and Price, 1979). Underpinning both of these models is the belief that learners possess biologically based physical and environmental learning preferences that, along with well-established traits like emotional and sociological preferences, combine to form an individual learning style (Murray-Harvey, 1994). Both of these learning styles models classify learning style elements into the following specific areas:

Emotional (motivation, persistence, responsibility, structure)

Environmental (sound, light, temperature, design)

Sociological (peers, authority)

Physical (perceptual modalities, time of day, intake, mobility)

The NASSP and Dunn and Dunn learning styles models assume that adult learners vary in the aforementioned areas. For example, some learners are highly motivated and prefer a learning environment that is dimly lit with little distractions. Conversely, a learner who is marginally motivated might prefer a learning environment that is visually stimulating with an instructor who relies on a collaborative method utilizing peers to teach (e.g. classroom discussion, experiential activities).

Like the NASSP and Dunn and Dunn models, Endorf and McNeff 's (1991) adult learning styles model emphasizes emotional and sociological attributes. These researchers classified adult learners into five distinct types. These five types and their corresponding attributes are as follows:

1. Confident
   • Pragmatic, introspective, and self-directed
   • Goal-Oriented
   • Possesses the ability to identify/meet own learning needs
   • Competes only with themselves, not their peers
   • Exhibits an interactive and experiential learning style
   • Prefers interaction and participation
   • Realizing personal goals is their top priority
     
2. Affective
   • Responds to the affective elements in learning
   • Likes the feeling and process of learning
   • Does not question the expertise of the instructor
   • Education is seen as an end to itself
   • Willingly cooperates in the learning environment
3. Learner in Transition
   • Developing independence in thought is the top priority
   • Has difficulty establishing personal learning goals
   • Prefers interactive learning and discussion
   • Rejects the idea of being fed information
4. Integrated
   • Primarily interested in personal success
   • Prefers learning environments that are highly collaborative
   • Demands to be recognized as a meaningful contributor
5. Risk Taker
   • Enjoys new ventures and is eager to learn new concepts
   • Sufficiently self-confident
     

Given these differences in learning styles, Endorf and McNeff (1991) recommend specific teaching styles and strategies that would respond to the unique needs and preferences of the five distinct types. Specific teaching strategies for the five types are as follows:

1. Confident Learners
   • Assignments need to have a clear purpose
   • Encourage participation
   • Provide opportunities for interactive learning with peers
2. Affective Learners
   • Give clearly stated assignments
   • Provide individualized instruction
3. Transitional Learners
   • Provide appropriate opportunities to explore experiences
   • Assume collaborative approach
   • Provide ample challenge
     
4. Integrated Learners
   • Provide opportunities for self-direction
   • Encourage flexibility
     
5. Risk Taker Learners
   • Provide assignments that encourage individuality
     

As previously indicated, adults vary tremendously in how they acquire knowledge and no one theory on adult learning styles can adequately address the diversity of each learner. However, a synthesis of the research findings on adult learning is illustrated in the following:

Structure of Learning Experiences

1. Adults prefer flexible schedules that respond to their own time constraints.
2. Adults learn better when learning is individualized.
3. Adults prefer face-to-face learning rather than learning through the use of video or audio communications.
4. Adults derive benefits from interactional activities with others who differ in age, level of experience, and professional preparation.

Learning Climate

1. Adult learners seem to learn better if there is an atmosphere of mutual helpfulness and peer support.
2. Since adult learners are reluctant to take risks, the climate should be characterized by a sense of trust and acceptance.
3. Adult learners appreciate the invitation to express their views and are open to the views of others.
4. Adult learners bring clear expectations to the learning environment and expect instructors to accommodate these expectations.

Focus of Learning

1. Adult learners derive the greatest benefit from instructional methods that assist them in processing their experience through reflection, analysis, and critical examination.
2. Adult learners value teaching methods that increase their autonomy.
3. Adult learners are motivated by practical how-to learning.

Teaching-Learning Strategies and Media

1. Adult learners value problem solving and cooperative learning.
2. Adult learners seem to benefit from active participation in the learning process.

***The printing, downloading, and other use of these materials is permitted and encouraged. Please credit citations as follows:

Stroot, S., Keil, V., Stedman, P., Lohr, L., Faust, R., Schincariol-Randall, L., Sullivan, A., Czerniak, G., Kuchcinski, J., Orel, N., & Richter, M. (1998). Peer assistance and review guidebook. Columbus, OH: Ohio Department of Education.

【作者: 翰唐】【访问统计:】【2008年02月18日 星期一 21:12】【注册】【打印】